Proceedings of the International scientific and practical conference ―Paris Science and Education Forum‖ (July 10-12, 2026) / Publisher website: www.naukainfo.com. – Paris, France, 2026. - 67 p.

61 However, ―the nature of training a doctor and the form of treatment depend on the level of civilization and social organization of countries and peoples involved‖ [2]. The lecture material should also mark methods that limit the understanding of the clinical presentation, i.e., non-scientific methods of inquiry. They include Intuition, Rational, Empiricism, Tenacity, and Authority methods [3]. The method of tenacity has the characteristic that some conceptual representations are retained out of habit, repeated statements often have more credibility, information is considered to be true because it has always been believed, and any technique to correct potential inaccuracies has not been found. In the intuition method, "information" is adopted by assumption. This method is often used in moral thinking, and there is no mechanism for assessing whether this information is accurate. The method of representation (Authority) requires assessing the competence and relevance of the source, how objective the information is, its validity, and its correspondence to known facts, etc. The method of empiricism is characterized by formulating answers based on one's own sensory experience. Indeed, all knowledge is acquired through the senses, but observations can be misinterpreted, and feelings are limited and deceptive. The rational method is based on logical reasoning, such as deductive or syllogistic, which represents a set of premises, namely, premises combined to obtain a conclusion. However, a syllogism is valid if the conclusion logically derives from the premises. Finally, reality must not be confused with truth. The student's ability to understand what inductive and deductive thinking means is of the essence. Thus, inductive thinking describes the form of generalization that derives a universal law from a pattern revealed in many individual cases. Deductive thinking is based on conclusions from general propositions to individual cases. These two methods of the thinking process, due to their incompleteness, are interrelated and complement each other in the real process of diagnostic knowing. Hence, it should be noted that a simple truth obtained inductively is always incomplete, since experience is always incomplete. Scientific induction is only probabilistic due to its incompleteness and serves only to create new general theoretical knowledge based on individual empirical facts. The lecture course, followed by practical studies, must cope with fragmented knowledge and overemphasized theory, bearing in mind that higher school must give solid scientific knowledge. Clinical lectures should reveal the correlation between clinical observation and reading, reading and observation, without which a particular disease cannot be understood in all its manifestations. There is no doubt that lectures must reveal and form clinical logic and thinking [4]. In its turn, it is impossible to verify and establish whether diagnostic thinking is correct without knowing the four main laws of logic. These laws include: 1. The law of identity ("A is A"), meaning that each thought must be equal to itself, must not have more than one meaning. 2. The law of non-contradiction means that a proposition and its negation cannot be simultaneously true. 3. The law of the excluded middle means that two contradictory statements on the same subject at the same time and in the same respect cannot be simultaneously true and cannot be simultaneously false. 4. The law of sufficient reason stipulates that any thought (thesis) for having effect must be proven by some arguments, and these arguments must be sufficient to support the initial thought, i.e., it must derive from them [5]. The following stages of diagnostic search, for example, of bronchial obstruction, reveal knowledge of this problem and the train of clinical thinking: The 1st stage is obtaining a medical history (smoking, working conditions, other risk factors) and clinical signs of bronchial obstruction; the 2nd stage is verifying bronchial obstruction, determine its severity and reversibility using spirometry; the 3rd stage – to conduct differential diagnostics between the main diseases causing bronchial obstruction (mainly, between chronic obstructive lung disease and bronchial asthma); the 4th stage is formulating a detailed diagnosis of chronic obstructive lung disease, indicating the clinical group, exacerbations over the past year, a score for shortness of breath, the severity of the exacerbation, the severity of bronchial obstruction, the availability of complications, and comorbidity; the 5th stage is the prescription of a therapeutic measures complex for exacerbation elimination and baseline management of bronchial obstruction (phenotyping); the 6th stage is developing an individual management program for a patient with chronic obstructive lung disease (smoking, continuity of basic therapy depending on the phenotype and dynamics of the clinical group, vaccination, rehabilitation, self-monitoring with acquired skills and abilities, status of comorbid conditions). The abovementioned stages reveal the pathophysiology and clinical picture, because in case of bronchial obstruction due to various pathogenetic mechanisms (inflammatory edema, aggregate of thick discharge, bronchospasm, decreased lung elasticity), terminal bronchioles are closed much earlier, thus causing an increase in the residual air volume more distally to the terminal bronchioles with the development of lung hyperinflation and a decrease in gas exchange. After creating resistance (Rtot) during exhalation by lip-seal, the patient increases intrabronchial pressure, thereby delaying the onset of the physiological act of